The chili
pepper (also chile pepper or chilli pepper,
from Nahuatl chīlli /ˈt͡ʃiːli/) is the fruit[1] of plants from the genusCapsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. In Britain, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, India,[2] and other Asian countries, the word "pepper" is
usually omitted.
The substances that
give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several
related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids.
Chili peppers
originated in the Americas.[3] After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used in both food
and medicine. Chilies were brought to Asia by Portuguese navigators during the 16th century.
India is the world's
largest producer, consumer and exporter of chili peppers.[4] Guntur in Andhra Pradesh produces 30% of all the chilies produced
in India,[5] and the state of Andhra Pradesh as a whole contributes 75%
of India's chili exports.
Contents
·
4 Uses
History
Chili peppers have
been a part of the human diet in the Americas since at least 7500 BC. The most
recent research shows that chili peppers were domesticated more than 6000 years ago in Mexico, in the region that
extends across southernPuebla and northern Oaxaca to
southeastern Veracruz,[6] and were one of the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in Mexico, Central and
parts of South America.[7]
Christopher Columbus was one of the first Europeans to
encounter them (in the Caribbean), and called them "peppers" because they, like black
and white pepper of the Piper genus known in Europe, have a spicy hot taste unlike other
foodstuffs. Upon their introduction into Europe, chilies were grown as
botanical curiosities in the gardens of Spanish and Portuguese monasteries. But
the monks experimented with the chili culinary potential and discovered that
their pungency offered a substitute for black peppercorns, which at the time
were so costly that they were used as legal currency in some countries.[8]
Chilies were
cultivated around the globe after Columbus.[9][10] Diego Álvarez Chanca, a physician on Columbus' second voyage to
the West Indies in 1493, brought the first chili peppers to Spain and first
wrote about their medicinal effects in 1494.
The spread of chili
peppers to Asia was most likely a natural consequence of its introduction to
Portuguese traders (Lisbon was a common port of call for Spanish ships sailing
to and from the Americas) who, aware of its trade value, would have likely
promoted its commerce in the Asian spice trade routes then dominated by
Portuguese and Arab traders.[11] Today chilies are an integral part of South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisines.
There is a verifiable
correlation between the chili pepper geographical dissemination and consumption
in Asia and the presence of Portuguese traders, India and southeast Asia being
obvious examples.
The chili pepper
features heavily in the cuisine of the Goan region of India, which was the site
of a Portuguese colony (e.g., vindaloo, an Indian interpretation of a
Portuguese dish). Chili peppers journeyed from India,[12] through Central Asia and Turkey, to Hungary, where they became
the national spice in the form of paprika.
An alternate, although
not so plausible account (no obvious correlation between its dissemination in
Asia and Spanish presence or trade routes), defended mostly by Spanish
historians, was that from Mexico, at the time a
Spanish colony, chili peppers spread into their other colony the Philippines and from there to India, China,Indonesia. To Japan, it was brought by the Portuguese
missionaries in 1542, and then later, it was brought to Korea.
In 1995
archaeobotanist Hakon Hjelmqvist published an article in Svensk Botanisk
Tidskrift claiming there was evidence for the presence of
chili peppers in Europe in pre-Columbian times.[13] According to Hjelmqvist, archaeologists at a dig in St Botulf in Lund found a Capsicum frutescens in a layer from the 13th century.
Hjelmqvist thought it came from Asia. Hjelmqvist also said that Capsicum was
described by the Greek Theophrastus (370–286 BCE) in his Historia
Plantarum, and in other sources. Around the first century CE,
the Roman poet Martialis (Martial)
mentioned "Piperve crudum" (raw pepper) in Liber XI, XVIII, allegedly
describing them as long and containing seeds (a description which seems to fit
chili peppers - but could also fit the long pepper, which was well known to ancient Romans).
Species
and cultivars
See also: List
of Capsicum cultivars
The five domesticated
species of chili peppers are as follows:
·
Capsicum annuum, which includes many common varieties such
as bell peppers, wax, cayenne, jalapeños, and thechiltepin
·
Capsicum frutescens, which includes malagueta, tabasco and Thai peppers, piri piri, and Malawian Kambuzi
·
Capsicum chinense, which includes the hottest peppers such as
the naga, habanero, Datil and Scotch bonnet
Though there are only
a few commonly used species, there are many cultivars and methods of preparing
chili peppers that have different names for culinary use. Green and red bell peppers, for example, are the same cultivar of C. annuum,
immature peppers being green. In the same species are the jalapeño, the poblano (which when dried is referred to
as ancho), New Mexico (which is also known as chile
colorado), Anaheim, serrano, and other cultivars.
Peppers are commonly
broken down into three groupings: bell peppers, sweet peppers, and hot peppers.
Most popular pepper varieties are seen as falling into one of these categories
or as a cross between them.
Intensity
The substances that
give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several
related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids.[14][15] Capsaicin is also the primary component in pepper spray, a less-than-lethal
weapon.
When consumed,
capsaicinoids bind with pain receptors in the mouth and throat that are
responsible for sensing heat. Once activated by the capsaicinoids, these
receptors send a message to the brain that the person has consumed something
hot. The brain responds to the burning sensation by raising the heart rate,
increasing perspiration and release of endorphins. A 2008 study[16] reports that capsaicin alters how the body's cells use
energy produced by hydrolysis of ATP. In the normal hydrolysis the SERCA protein uses
this energy to move calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. When capsaicin is present, it alters the
conformation of the SERCA, and thus reduces the ion movement; as a result the
ATP energy (which would have been used to pump the ions) is instead released as
thermal energy.[17]
The "heat" of
chili peppers was historically measured in Scoville heat units (SHU), which is a
measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup
before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to
be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety and therefore the
higher the rating.[18] The modern commonplace method for quantitative analysis of SHU rating uses high-performance liquid chromatography to directly measure the capsaicinoid
content of a chili pepper variety. Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room
temperature, and measures 16,000,000 SHU.
Common peppers
A wide range of
intensity is found in commonly used peppers:
|
0 SHU
|
|
|
New Mexico Green Chili
|
1,500 SHU
|
|
2,500-8,000 SHU
|
|
|
100,000-225,000 SHU
|
|
|
100,000–350,000 SHU[19]
|
Notably hot chili peppers
Some
of the world's hottest chili peppers are:
|
2.2M SHU[20]
|
|
|
2.0M SHU[21]
|
|
|
1.58M SHU[22]
|
|
|
1.463M SHU[23]
|
|
|
1.4M SHU[24]
|
|
|
1.2M SHU[25]
|
Culinary uses
Chili
pepper pods, which are berries, are used fresh or dried. Chilies are dried
to preserve them for long periods of time, which may also be done by pickling.
Dried
chilies are often ground into powders, although many Mexican dishes including variations on chiles rellenos use the entire chili.
Dried whole chilies may be reconstituted before grinding to a paste. The chipotle is the smoked, dried, ripejalapeño.
Many
fresh chilies such as poblano have a tough
outer skin that does not break down on cooking. Chilies are sometimes used
whole or in large slices, by roasting, or other means of blistering or charring the skin, so as not
to entirely cook the flesh beneath. When cooled, the skins will usually slip
off easily.
The
leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible. Though almost all other Solanaceous crops have toxins in their
leaves, chili peppers do not. The leaves, which are mildly bitter and nowhere
near as hot as the fruit, are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon
ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the
chicken soup, tinola.[26] In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi.[27] In Japanese cuisine, the leaves are cooked as greens, and
also cooked in tsukudani style
for preservation.
Chili
is by far the most important fruit in Bhutan. Local markets are never without
chili, always teemed with different colors and sizes, in fresh and dried form.
Bhutanese call this crop ema (in Dzongkha) or solo (in Sharchop). Chili is a
staple fruit in Bhutan; the ema datsi recipe is entirely made
of chili mixed with local cheese. Chili is also an important ingredient in
almost all curries and food recipes in the country.
In
India, most households always keep a stack of fresh hot green chilies at hand,
and use them to flavor most curries and dry dishes. It is typically lightly
fried with oil in the initial stages of preparation of the dish. Some states in
India, such as Rajasthan, make entire dishes only by using spices and chilies.
Chilies
are present in many cuisines. Some notable dishes other than the ones mentioned
elsewhere in this article include:
·
Paprikash from Hungary uses significant amounts of mild, ground,
dried chilies, aka paprika, in a braised chicken dish.
·
Paprykarz szczeciński is a Polish fish paste with rice, onion,
tomato concentrate, vegetable oil, chili pepper powder and other spices.
·
Chiles en nogada from the Puebla region of Mexico
uses fresh mild chilies stuffed with meat and covered with a creamy
nut-thickened sauce.
·
Mole poblano from the city of Puebla in Mexico uses
several varieties of dried chilies, nuts, spices, and fruits to produce a
thick, dark sauce for poultry or other meats.
·
Arrabbiata sauce from Italy is a tomato-based sauce for pasta always
including dried hot chilies as well as, Puttanescasauce which is tomato based with
olives, capers, anchovy and, sometimes, chilies.
·
'Nduja a more typical example of Italian spicy speciality, from
the region of Calabria. A soft, pork sausage made 'hot' by the addition of the
locally grown variety of jalapeño chili.
·
Kung Pao chicken (also spelled Gong Bao) from the Sichuan region of China uses small hot dried chilies briefly fried
in oil to add spice to the oil then used for frying.
·
Som Tam a Green Papaya Salad from Thai/ Lao cuisine traditionally has, as a key
ingredient, a fistful of chopped fresh hot Thai chili, pounded in a mortar.
·
Nam phrik is a traditional Thai sauce prepared with chopped fresh or
dry chilies in fish sauce and lime juice.
·
Sambal Belacan (pronounced 'blachan') is a
traditional Malay sauce made by frying a mixture of mainly pounded dried chillies
and fermented prawn paste. It is customarily served with rice dishes and is
especially popular when mixed with crunchy pan-roasted ikan bilis (sun dried
anchovies) when it is known as Sambal Ikan Bilis.
Fresh
or dried chilies are often used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment – usually bottled when commercially available – that adds
spice to other dishes. Hot sauces are found in many cuisines including harissa from North Africa, chili oil from China (known as rāyu in Japan), and sriracha from Thailand.
Psychology
Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating chilies is an example of a
"constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and
fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not
actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without
any risk of bodily harm.[28]
Medicinal
Capsaicin
is considered a safe and effective topical analgesic agent in the management of arthritis pain, herpes zoster-related pain, diabetic neuropathy,mastectomy pain, and headaches.[29] However, a study published in 2010 has linked capsaicin
to skin cancer.[30][31]
Pepper spray
Main
article: Pepper spray
Capsaicin
extracted from chilies is used in pepper spray as an irritant, a form of less-lethal weapon.
Crop defense
Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long
been widespread in African and Asian countries, where pachyderms nightly destroy crops, raid
grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies
effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants don't like capsaicin,
the chemical in chilies that makes them hot. Because the elephants have a large
and sensitive olfactory and nasal system, the smell of the chili
causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a
few rows of the pungent fruit around valuable crops, farmers
create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass.
Chilly-Dung Bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of
mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps
hungry elephants out of farmers fields. This can lessen dangerous physical
confrontation between people and elephants.[32]
Food defense
As
birds have a lessened sensitivity to the effects of chili it can be used to
keep mammalian vermin from bird seed (see Evolutionary Advantages below).
Nutritional
value
Red
chilies contain large amounts of vitamin C and small amounts of carotene (provitamin A). Yellow and especially green chilies (which
are essentially unripe fruit) contain a considerably lower amount of both substances.
In addition, peppers are a good source of most B vitamins, and vitamin B6 in
particular. They are very high in potassium,magnesium, and iron. Their very high vitamin C content can also
substantially increase the uptake of non-heme ironfrom other ingredients in a meal, such as beans and grains.
Evolutionary advantages
Birds
do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin, because it targets a
specific pain receptor in mammals. Chili peppers are eaten by
birds living in the chili peppers' natural range. The seeds of the peppers are
distributed by the birds that drop the seeds while eating the pods, and the
seeds pass through the digestive tract unharmed. This relationship may have promoted
the evolution of the protective capsaicin.[33] Products based on this substance have been sold to treat
the seeds in bird feeders to deter squirrels and other mammalian vermin without also
deterring birds. Capsaicin is also a defense mechanism against microbial fungi
that invade through punctures made in the outer skin by various insects.[34]
Spelling
and usage
The
three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli,
all of which are recognized by dictionaries.
·
Chili is widely used
in the United States[35] and Canada.[36] However, it is also commonly used as a short name forchili con carne (literally chili with meat). Most
versions are seasoned with chili powder, which can refer to pure dried, ground chili peppers, or to a
mixture containing other spices.
·
Chile is the most
common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries,[37] as well as some parts of the United States and Canada,
which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. In the Southwest United
States (particularly New Mexico), chile also denotes a thick, spicy,
un-vinegared sauce, available in red and green varieties, and served over the
local food.
·
Chilli was the
original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word
for the fruit (chīlli)[38] and is the preferred British spelling according to
the Oxford
English Dictionary,
although it also lists chile and chili as
variants.[39] Chilli (and its plural chillies)
is the most common spelling in Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand,
Pakistan, Singapore and South Africa[40][41]
The
name of the plant is almost certainly unrelated to that of Chile, the country, which
has an uncertain etymology perhaps relating to local place names.[42] Chile, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico are some of the Spanish-speaking countries where chilies
are known as ají, a word of Taíno origin. Though pepper originally
referred to the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the latter usage is included in
English dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary(sense
2b of pepper) and Merriam-Webster.[43] The word pepper is also commonly used in
the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of chili
plants and their fruits.
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